stanley p. Schweinfurt
Introduction
Coal in america in the set is relatively inexpensive and is an excellent source of energy and raw materials by the by -product. For the sake of such factors, domestic coal is the most important source of fuel for power plants in the united states and will continue to remain in the 21st century. In addition, all us industries continue to use coal to create fuel and coke, and there is a large foreign market for high -quality american coal. The field of coal is useful as a heat source and a mass of side effects that can be made from coal have been investigated. The ongoing more large -scale use of coal in the united states and higher education of many other industrialized and developing countries has led to the well -known and expected dangers of the quality of nature and human health. As a result, there is still much that you can inquire about harmful attributes of coal and many rules where it is easy to remove, modify or avoid to use coal to use coal less harmful to people and the environment. Such problems of the quality of coal have not turned into carefully studied until the present moment.
Certain problems that accompany the prey and use of coal are excellently known. Acid drainage of mines leads to the fact that coal layers and surrounding layers containing the medium to a large amount of sulfur, like compounds known as sulfides, are violated by extraction, thus subjecting sulfide to air and water. Sulfur atmosphere oxides (sox) and the subsequent deposition of acid (for example, acid rain) appear while burning coal of medium to high sulfa. About the quality of the surface, and the water -containing layers can negatively affect the utilization of ash and silt, which arise as a result of burning coal and the restoration of smoke gases. These are some of the big troubles requiring either improved or new means of legal services. Other environmental problems relate to carbon dioxide emissions (co2) and nitrogen oxides (nox), two so -called “greenhouse gases”. These emissions are often attributed only to the use of coal; but, they also appear during the burning of any fossil or fuel biomass, such as wood - natural gas, gasoline and heating oil. The problem of greenhouse gas requires a wider solution than daily reduction in the use of coal. Research is now being conducted in america and in a slightly different country in order to reduce and dispose of co2 from coal burning. An excellent review of the results of this review and prospects of coal can be found in the publication of iea coal research (1999).
Folding with a liquid layer of coal, which is an advanced method for monitoring sulfur emissions is a huge recognition. In a similar system, small -earth coal is mixed with finely named limestone. Both fed together in a stove in an acute stream on a horizontally moving grate. The air is imposed through the grill, and the whole mass is ignited at relatively subsequent temperatures. Forced air can lead to mixing of land and limestone with economical combustion gases, which, in turn, helps to turn any sox into gypsum, when a burning mass moves along the grill. According to the us department of energy (2000), coal with the highest sulfurka occurs in this way, simultaneously capturing up to 95 percent of the sox and most of nox, emitted.
Co2 emissions are the subject of current studies of the united states and several other countries.
Amendments of the 1990 clean air law (public law 101-549) requires protection for the impact of rain and snow of the united states. The agency (epa) for the implementation of research of 15 trace elements published by coal burning to determine whether the midges are a danger to health. These 15 elements (antimony, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chlorine, chrome, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, potassium, selenium, thorium and uranium), and many other potentially hazardous substances released into the air with other industries are called “are called“ dangerous pollutants of air ”(hap).
Based on epa epidemiological studies, it came to the conclusion that possible mercury, there is no convincing evidence indicating that tracing elemental emissions from coal power plants cause different problems with the well -being of a person (us weather protection authority, 1996). In december 2000, after an extensive study, the epa announced that the regulation of mercury emissions from coal power plants is also required, since power plants that function on coal. Protection body, 2000).
Epa will offer the rules for restricting mercury emissions in 2003 and will make the final emissions by 2004.By the way, arsenic is still considered, not as a problem of emissions due to burning of coal, but in its potential role as a danger in groundwater, if it is lered out of coal garbage or from the places of flying ash in recycling. Additional studies on the quality of coal quality as mercury, are carried out at all in the united states geological service (usgs) and in other places to help to determine their sources in charcoal and 2) to solve all the remaining difficulties with nasty dangers in the field of problems in relation to these pair of element.
In 1996, the epa stated which of the potential hap from coal combustion only mercury and arsenic have needs for an additional study. In 2000, epa determined that mercury emissions require regulation. -Building equipment. For example, often the components in coal can provoke serious erosion and corrosion or the buildup of mineral deposits on the furnace and boilers. These effects fit the efficiency and longevity of furnaces or kitchens; ultimately, costly repairs are usually necessary.
So far, the coal was discussed due to the fact that if it was the only homogeneous material, which is done only for convenience in these endeavors. In fact, there is a rich complex of coal types, based on various proportions and combinations of biological and inorganic (mineral) components, sulfur and ash. For example, the sulfur content can vary from low (less than one percent) to the environment (from one to 3 %), to high (more than 3 percent, and the ash outputs vary from a low level of about three percent to a maximum of 49 percent (if the profitability of the ash is 50 percent or higher, the substance is no longer called coal). Coal can produce a high or low volume of efforts or contain a high or low amount of substances that produce organic chemicals and synthetic fuel, or contain a higher or larger low number of elements that are considered dangerous air pollutants (hap). This range in the properties is the result of a variety of coal origin, including the long and complex geological stories of coal. The main information about (1) of the quality of coal and the reasons why it is so complicated, (2) methods for determining the quality coal and (3) the need to continue the study of this complex subject. The discussion about the appearance of coal is included to ensure the basis for understanding the complex nature of the coal. See section “further ability to read for bibliography on the quality of coal and other topics (for example, coal production, use of coal or consequences of coal use).
Confirmation
Grateful confirmation applies to the following scientists and technicians, without contributions, the contribution and thorough reviews this report would be impossible: philip j. Aruscaved, linda j bragg, m. Devyero carter, william a. Dimikhel, frank t. Dolong, robert b. Finkelman, romeo m. Flores, garold j. Gluskiter, joseph r. Hatch, robert j. Johnson, rustu s. Kalionka, elizabeth d kuzmin, ronald j. Litvin, paul s. Lyon, peter j. Mccab, eric a. Morrissi, charles l. Oman, william h. Orem, curtis a. Palmer, tom a. Fillips, eleanor i. Robbins, leslie f . Ruppert, ronald v. Stanton, frank j. Walthall, peter d. Waror, william d. Watson, jason s. Willett, christopher grandon and chris j. Zigarlik. It is included in memory of the late ronald v. Stanton, the us geologist and scientists -scientists of the united states. The faith of ron is the value of the report, which will make riddles of the quality of coal even more accessible to the public, and its support and physical support during its preparation were important to complete this circular.
coal in the usa
Discussion of the use of coal in america and you need profitable things coming from coal to provide the reader with the best understanding of the importance of coal and the need to continue the study of quality coal.
The manufacture and consumption of coal
Coal use in the united states began about 2000 years ago. The early inhabitants of this continent probably collected coal from outfits, beaches and the channel. Coal production of european americans began in the richmond basin in virginia from 1720 to 1750. For example, in the richmond region, coal was issued during the american revolution. Between 1750 and 180,000, coal was discovered in many parts of the northern and southern appalach basin. Since the population moved to the west after the american revolution, coal was found, gradually discovered in the middle of the continent (including texas), the region of the rocky mountains, the colorado plateau and the northern great plains. The first coal in european countries was developed along the missouri river in 1804 by researchers and george rogers clark (encyclopedia collia is 56 percent of the annual electricity requirement ; 90 ercent of the coal produced for this purpose.
After the last 1830 months with the beginning of the railways, the real growth of the coal industry began. Railways not only used coal, they also provided money to transport coal, which encouraged the growth of energy industries. The growth of railway branches also encouraged the expansion of the iron and steel industry, which, by the age of 1860, renounced coal towards cox to normalize iron ore to pig farming. In the 1880s, after the invention of electric turbines, coal soon turned out to be the main https://balkan-pharmaceuticals.org source of heat for steam electricity. For a much more detailed report on the early days of coal detection and use in america, see eavenson (1942).
By 1918, the industry in america almost completely depended on coal. In the process of world war ii, demand for coal forced the production of coal to record maximums, but at that moment, after these formalities, oil replaced coal as our main source of energy. 10 years after the second world war, all reduction in the use of coal was associated with the replacement of railway engines of coal burning for diesel engines. In the 1960s, the manufacture and consumption of coal began to grow due to the growing popularity of electricity and have grown since that time. In 1961, the united states produced 420.4 million. Tons (1 ton = 2000 pounds) and used 390, four million tons for internal purposes; in 1998, the production amounted to 118.7.7 million tons, and the internal use in 1999 amounted to 1,045.2 million tons (fig. 1-2) (energy information administration, 2000).
And is used in the usa taken into account exclusively by export. Revenue from coal exports to reduce the deficit of payment balance, which the united states will organize consumer goods for its foreign suppliers. In 1998, coal exports in the amount of 78 million tons earned approximately $ 2.9 billion. 1999 (slightly less than in 1998 and 1,045.2 million. Tons were used within the country (a little more than in 1998). Differences in production and consumption in the period from 1998 to 1999 were due to a reduction in export by twenty percent millions of tons in 1999. From the total coal used within the russian federation in 1999, 90 % (944, four million tons) were used for fuel power plants (fig. 3), which produced 56 percent of electricity in america. Other 10 percent used in the industry (coca -cola and heating), residential and commercial applications (fig. 2). Coal prices. In 1998, the average price of a ton of coal at the mine amounted to $ 17.67; the average price of a ton of coal delivered to electricity amounted to $ 25.64 (energy administration, 2000). Prices in the 86th) the last century in the amount of 23.99 dollars of the united states of america and 33.30 usa per ton, respectively, demonstrate this trend. Among other things, over the past decade, coal was the least expensive of the described main sources of fuel, natural gas and oil-in america in the form of a total unit of heat (million btu) during the ten-year-old period of the ocal of $ 0.91, in a mine; natural gas by eye was $ 1.72 on a knot; and raw oil by eye amounted to $ 2.70 at the back of the purchase (administration of energy information, 2000). Lower prices are likely to encourage the continuation of a high and, probably) improving the quality of coal use in the united states of america. The decline further to about $ 20.01 per ton, delivered at power plants in 1998 dollars). Coal production is predicted by the eia (fig. 2) to grow to about 1300 million tons by the current year, from which internal use will be 1279 million tons; 1177 million tons will be used from this amount of the power plant. These figures indicate the growth rate of approximately one percent per year and for the production of coal, but also for using a power plant. It is predicted that the rest of the internal use of coal remains approximately the same by the current year (the administration of energy information, 2000).
Coal deliveries
Although the deposits of coal are widely distributed in all countries of the united states, until recently, the production of coal production and consumption remained in the eastern region, mainly in the appalachian basin . This can be associated with the concentration of the population and production in the east. The production of coal has recently moved to the western states, because most of the remaining coal resources with a low content of sulfurna are located in rocki-mountains and the regions of the northern great plains. Coal for coal with a low sulfa content is guided by the amendments of the 1990 clean air law, which began implementation in 2000. New rules limit sox emissions from coal power plants up to 1.2 pounds per million btu.Consultants in power plants find that the transformation of their carbon supplies from coal of special and high sulfur to coal with low sulfur content, but not installing the desulfurization systems (fgd) of the chimney-gas, will usually be the least expensive to achieve the desired level of the soco. Emissions (us geological service, 2000). In the appalach basin there are coal reserves with a low sulfa content, but most of the remaining reserves are gathered at a depth requiring expensive underground production to restore them.
In the future, than in the current realities, there are quite a lot of coal in america in order to guarantee the expected requirements for most of the 21st century. In 1999, the national association of mining industry (nma) reported that a third of the leading coal companies in the united states have about 68 billion tons of coal in reserve (the national association of mining places, 1999). Moreover, numerous medium -sized companies in corn coals have reserves that are not included in the nma report, and there are additional coal. The abundance of coal in the beds and zones that will provide the highest percentage of internal production of the country's energy over the next 50 years, usgs in working with geological studies of large coal states (arizona, colorado, illinois, indiana, kentukki, marland, missouri, mexico, new mexico , northern dakota, ohio, pennsylvania, tennessee, texas, utah, virginia, west virginia and wyoming), is located in the midst of the pool hostel. Geological service, 1996, 2000). Figure 4 shows the general distribution of coal deposits in the results of the assessment in the northern rocky mountains and the great plain region, including the selected coal layers on the reservoir of bolshoi green, the carbon of hannah, the porokhova river and whiliston; colorado plateau; both the northern and central coal regions of the appalach basin are available in the cd-rom format (fort union coal coster team, 1999; kirschbaum and others .. 2000; northern and central apapalachsky basin, the team in the opinion of the coal regions, 2001).
Coal by-products
Coal-black, black, dusty rock, which causes the punishment of bad kids during festive times is really very wonderful and convenient material. Plus to ensure heat for the development of electricity (which is currently one of the main use of coal), many other useful compounds are obtained from coal. Perhaps the most popular of such substances is coca cola used in the steel industry to protect iron from its ore. Coal is used in the manufacture of other, possibly unexpected products, such as pharmacy drugs, textile dyes, preservatives of fruits and wood, and other simple or too complex chemicals (see center). These chemicals are usually produced during the production of coca -cola during the process called destructive distillation. In exchange business, the coal is packed in a closed vessel with minor oxygen (retort or coca-pove), and then heats up to a high temperature. This process relieves the volatile substance in coal. Flying contains parental compounds that are needed for the manufacture of products shown in the hospital. The lack of oxygen in retorva prevents the complete burning of chemicals. Coal in america and other states. Water gas was used for heating and cooking, but since the 1940s he was usually replaced by natural gas in the united states of america. In many devices, parts of the world, for example, in belgium and france during world war ii and during south africa today gasoline and heating oil are available from coal. Now in the united states, research is being conducted to facilitate the methods and economics of production as gas, never oil (called sinfuel) from coal. This service is sponsored by the us department of energy and includes numerous private, industrial and academic organizations (us department of energy, 2000).
Coal is more than just a fuel source; it contains complex resins, oils and gases, which is able to be divided into many useful products, such as dyes, medicines, solvents and medicines.
Coal burning products (ccp), which consist of flying ash, lower ash, slag of the boiler and materials for disinfecting smoke gas (fgd), also became fundamental in the economy. When the coal burns, it radiates sulfur in the form of sulfur oxide. Fgd is a method by which a chemical substance, such as calcium carbonate (caco3), is introduced into the flood of flue gas to catch sulfur by combining with its secrets with the formation of gypsum (caso4). Gypsum is not easy and reduced to the bottom of the fgd block in the role of silt in a humid process, or in the form of powder in a dried process.
According to usgs (kalyoncu, 1999), approximately 57.2 million tons of fly, 15.2 million. Tons of the lower ash, 2.7 million tons of slag of the boiler and 22.7 million tons of fgd material were obtained in 1998. The number of each ccp that was used in 1998 was in percent) 33.6, 31.3, 80.1 and the top ten, respectively; the rest was disposed of on landfills, a settlement of ponds or in any other ways. Coal flying ash is mainly used as an additive in concrete; flisen can be used as a structural filling of the quality of road material for creating, when stabilizing waste or in use in mining. The lower ash is used mainly as a road arguments and raw materials for structural filling, as well as in concrete and as sand for monitoring snow and ice. The boiler hilt is most often used in an explosive sand and roof granules. Fgd gypsum is used mainly on the wall, with small quantities used in concrete and